what is it?
Spanish has two passive constructions built with a past participle. The action passive uses ser + participle to describe an event carried out by an agent or force — the equivalent of English «was/were + past participle». The stative passive uses estar + participle to describe the condition that results from a completed action — the equivalent of English «was/were + adjective». In both constructions the participle agrees in gender and number with the subject. A third option, the se-passive, uses a reflexive pronoun with a third-person verb and is common when no agent is mentioned; its subject typically remains postverbal when it is a bare (article-less) noun phrase.
when to use it
ser + participle — action passive: use this when you want to express that something happened, especially when an agent (introduced by por) is present or implied. The focus is on the event itself. Example: La ciudad fue destruida por un terremoto.
estar + participle — stative passive: use this when you want to describe the state or condition of something after an action has already taken place. The focus is on the resulting situation, not the event. Example: La ciudad ya estaba destruida.
se-passive — no agent, general statements: use this when no agent is mentioned and the statement is general or impersonal. The grammatical subject (the thing being sold, announced, etc.) usually follows the verb, especially when it is a bare plural noun. Example: Se venden pisos en esta calle.
A quick test: if you can add «por alguien» (by someone) and the sentence still makes sense, ser is the right choice. If the sentence describes how something looks or what condition it is in right now, reach for estar.
formation
Both constructions follow the same pattern: a conjugated form of ser or estar + a past participle that agrees with the subject in gender and number. The participle is formed by adding -ado to -ar verb stems and -ido to -er/-ir verb stems. Many common verbs have irregular participles (e.g. abrir → abierto, escribir → escrito, romper → roto).
| subject gender/number | ser (preterite) + participle | estar (imperfect) + participle |
|---|---|---|
| masculine singular | fue destruido | estaba destruido |
| feminine singular | fue destruida | estaba destruida |
| masculine plural | fueron destruidos | estaban destruidos |
| feminine plural | fueron destruidas | estaban destruidas |
For the se-passive, conjugate the verb in the third person to match the postverbal noun: se vende un piso (singular) vs se venden pisos (plural). No participle is involved; the verb itself carries the meaning.
examples in context
common pitfalls
Forgetting participle agreement with the subject of ser.
The participle in a ser passive is not fixed — it behaves like an adjective and must match the subject. Las puertas is feminine plural, so the participle must be abiertas, not abierto.
✗ Las puertas fueron abierto a las diez.
✓ Las puertas fueron abiertas a las diez.
Using ser + participle to describe a resulting state.
When you mean that something was already in a certain condition — not that an action occurred — use estar. Saying la puerta fue abierta implies someone opened it (an action); la puerta estaba abierta describes the state of the door.
✗ Cuando llegué, la puerta fue abierta. (if you mean it was already open)
✓ Cuando llegué, la puerta estaba abierta.
Fronting a bare, article-less plural subject before the verb in a se-passive.
In a se-passive, a bare noun (no article, no determiner) must stay postverbal. Placing it before the verb produces an ungrammatical sentence in standard Spanish.
✗ Trenes han llegado.
✓ Han llegado trenes.
Three sentences, graded here. Nothing is saved and no account is needed.
Varios árboles del parque ___ derribados por el fuerte viento de anoche. (ser)
Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.